Artwork by Pablo Picasso Using Repeated Objects Art Using Repeated Objects

Early on-20th-century avant-garde fine art movement

Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde fine art motion that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from a single viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to correspond the discipline in a greater context.^[ane] Cubism has been considered the virtually influential art movement of the 20th century.^[2] ^[3] The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre and Montparnasse) or near Paris (Puteaux) during the 1910s and throughout the 1920s.

The motion was pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Juan Gris, and Fernand Léger.^[4] One primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional class in the late works of Paul Cézanne.^[5] A retrospective of Cézanne's paintings had been held at the Salon d'Automne of 1904, current works were displayed at the 1905 and 1906 Salon d'Automne, followed by two commemorative retrospectives after his decease in 1907.^[6]

In French republic, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, abstract art and later Purism.^[7] ^[8] The touch of Cubism was far-reaching and broad-ranging. In France and other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, Vorticism, De Stijl and Art Deco adult in response to Cubism. Early Futurist paintings agree in common with Cubism the fusing of the past and the present, the representation of different views of the field of study pictured at the aforementioned fourth dimension or successively, as well called multiple perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity,^[9] while Constructivism was influenced by Picasso's technique of constructing sculpture from dissever elements.^[10] Other common threads between these disparate movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization and mod life.

History [edit]

Historians have divided the history of Cubism into phases. In one scheme, the offset phase of Cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, a phrase coined by Juan Gris a posteriori,^[11] was both radical and influential every bit a brusk but highly pregnant art movement between 1910 and 1912 in France. A second stage, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity. English fine art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Co-ordinate to Cooper there was "Early on Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the motility was initially adult in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second stage being called "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent (later 1911); and finally Cooper referred to "Tardily Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde motility.^[12] Douglas Cooper's restrictive use of these terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) implied an intentional value judgement.^[v]

Pablo Picasso, 1909–10, Effigy dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 × 73 cm, Tate Modern, London

Proto-Cubism: 1907–1908 [edit]

Cubism burgeoned between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso'southward 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work.

In 1908, in his review of Georges Braque's exhibition at Kahnweiler's gallery, the critic Louis Vauxcelles called Braque a daring human who despises form, "reducing everything, places and a figures and houses, to geometric schemas, to cubes".^[14] ^[15]

Vauxcelles recounted how Matisse told him at the time, "Braque has simply sent in [to the 1908 Salon d'Automne] a painting made of niggling cubes".^[fifteen] The critic Charles Morice relayed Matisse's words and spoke of Braque's little cubes. The motif of the viaduct at l'Estaque had inspired Braque to produce 3 paintings marked by the simplification of form and deconstruction of perspective.^[16]

Georges Braque'due south 1908 Houses at Fifty'Estaque (and related works) prompted Vauxcelles, in Gil Blas, 25 March 1909, to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities).^[17] Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made past Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, every bit the outset Cubist paintings. The start organized group exhibition past Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called 'Salle 41'; it included works past Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso or Braque were exhibited.^[5]

Past 1911 Picasso was recognized every bit the inventor of Cubism, while Braque's importance and precedence was argued afterwards, with respect to his treatment of infinite, volume and mass in the Fifty'Estaque landscapes. But "this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists," wrote the art historian Christopher Green: "Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1911 [...]"^[5]

The exclamation that the Cubist depiction of infinite, mass, fourth dimension, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920,^[18] but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, specially past Cloudless Greenberg.^[nineteen]

Gimmicky views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the "Salle 41" Cubists, whose methods were likewise distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to exist considered just secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism accept therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the "Salle 41" artists, e.chiliad., Francis Picabia; the brothers Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp, who first in late 1911 formed the core of the Department d'Or (or the Puteaux Group); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well equally Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens; and painters such equally Louis Marcoussis, Roger de La Fresnaye, František Kupka, Diego Rivera, Léopold Survage, Auguste Herbin, André Lhote, Gino Severini (after 1916), María Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (subsequently 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were "later undermined by interpretations of the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation."^[5]

John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. "The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram: The diagram being a visible symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of advent only these too volition be treated as signs not as imitations or recreations."^[20]

Early on Cubism: 1909–1914 [edit]

Albert Gleizes, Fifty'Homme au Balcon, Human on a Balcony (Portrait of Dr. Théo Morinaud), 1912, oil on sheet, 195.six × 114.9 cm (77 × 45 one/4 in.), Philadelphia Museum of Art. Completed the same yr that Albert Gleizes co-authored the book Du "Cubisme" with Jean Metzinger. Exhibited at Salon d'Automne, Paris, 1912, Armory show, New York, Chicago, Boston, 1913

At that place was a distinct divergence between Kahnweiler'southward Cubists and the Salon Cubists. Prior to 1914, Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger (to a lesser extent) gained the support of a single committed art dealer in Paris, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who guaranteed them an annual income for the exclusive right to buy their works. Kahnweiler sold only to a small circle of connoisseurs. His support gave his artists the freedom to experiment in relative privacy. Picasso worked in Montmartre until 1912, while Braque and Gris remained in that location until afterwards the First World War. Léger was based in Montparnasse.^[5]

In contrast, the Salon Cubists built their reputation primarily by exhibiting regularly at the Salon d'Automne and the Salon des Indépendants, both major non-academic Salons in Paris. They were inevitably more aware of public response and the need to communicate.^[5] Already in 1910 a group began to form which included Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay and Léger. They met regularly at Henri le Fauconnier's studio near the boulevard du Montparnasse. These soirées oft included writers such every bit Guillaume Apollinaire and André Salmon. Together with other young artists, the group wanted to emphasise a research into form, in opposition to the Neo-Impressionist emphasis on color.^[21]

Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of the 26th Salon des Indépendants (1910), made a passing and imprecise reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Léger and Le Fauconnier as "ignorant geometers, reducing the human body, the site, to pallid cubes."^[22] ^[23] At the 1910 Salon d'Automne, a few months after, Metzinger exhibited his highly fractured Nu à la cheminée (Nude), which was subsequently reproduced in both Du "Cubisme" (1912) and Les Peintres Cubistes (1913).^[24]

The start public controversy generated by Cubism resulted from Salon showings at the Indépendants during the leap of 1911. This showing by Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, le Fauconnier and Léger brought Cubism to the attention of the general public for the first fourth dimension. Amidst the Cubist works presented, Robert Delaunay exhibited his Eiffel Tower, Tour Eiffel (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York).^[25]

The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon, The New York Times, Oct viii, 1911. Picasso's 1908 Seated Woman (Meditation) is reproduced along with a photo of the artist in his studio (upper left). Metzinger'due south Baigneuses (1908–09) is reproduced tiptop correct. Also reproduced are works by Derain, Matisse, Friesz, Herbin, and a photo of Braque

At the Salon d'Automne of the aforementioned year, in add-on to the Indépendants group of Salle 41, were exhibited works by André Lhote, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye, André Dunoyer de Segonzac and František Kupka. The exhibition was reviewed in the Oct eight, 1911 result of The New York Times. This article was published a year after Gelett Burgess' The Wild Men of Paris,^[26] and two years prior to the Armory Show, which introduced astonished Americans, accustomed to realistic art, to the experimental styles of the European avant garde, including Fauvism, Cubism, and Futurism. The 1911 New York Times article portrayed works by Picasso, Matisse, Derain, Metzinger and others dated before 1909; not exhibited at the 1911 Salon. The article was titled The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon and subtitled Eccentric School of Painting Increases Its Vogue in the Current Art Exhibition – What Its Followers Endeavour to Practise. ^[27] ^[28]

Amongst all the paintings on exhibition at the Paris Fall Salon none is attracting so much attention as the boggling productions of the so-chosen "Cubist" school. In fact, dispatches from Paris suggest that these works are easily the master feature of the exhibition. [...]

In spite of the crazy nature of the "Cubist" theories the number of those professing them is fairly respectable. Georges Braque, André Derain, Picasso, Czobel, Othon Friesz, Herbin, Metzinger—these are a few of the names signed to canvases earlier which Paris has stood and now over again stands in bare anaesthesia.

What do they hateful? Have those responsible for them taken get out of their senses? Is information technology art or madness? Who knows?^[27] ^[28]

Salon des Indépendants [edit]

The subsequent 1912 Salon des Indépendants located in Paris (20 March to 16 May 1912) was marked by the presentation of Marcel Duchamp'due south Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, which itself caused a scandal, even amongst the Cubists. It was in fact rejected by the hanging committee, which included his brothers and other Cubists. Although the piece of work was shown in the Salon de la Section d'Or in October 1912 and the 1913 Armory Testify in New York, Duchamp never forgave his brothers and onetime colleagues for censoring his work.^[21] ^[29] Juan Gris, a new addition to the Salon scene, exhibited his Portrait of Picasso (Art Constitute of Chicago), while Metzinger's 2 showings included La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) 1911–1912 (National Gallery of Denmark).^[xxx] Delaunay's monumental La Ville de Paris (Musée d'fine art moderne de la Ville de Paris) and Léger'due south La Noce, The Wedding (Musée National d'Fine art Moderne, Paris), were likewise exhibited.

Galeries Dalmau [edit]

In 1912, Galeries Dalmau presented the kickoff declared grouping exhibition of Cubism worldwide (Exposició d'Art Cubista),^[31] ^[32] ^[33] with a controversial showing by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Marie Laurencin and Marcel Duchamp (Barcelona, twenty April to ten May 1912). The Dalmau exhibition comprised 83 works by 26 artists.^[34] ^[35] ^[36] Jacques Nayral's association with Gleizes led him to write the Preface for the Cubist exhibition,^[31] which was fully translated and reproduced in the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya.^[37] ^[38] Duchamp'southward Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 was exhibited for the first time.^[39]

Extensive media coverage (in newspapers and magazines) before, during and after the exhibition launched the Galeries Dalmau every bit a force in the development and propagation of modernism in Europe.^[39] While press coverage was extensive, information technology was not always positive. Manufactures were published in the newspapers Esquella de La Torratxa ^[40] and El Noticiero Universal ^[41] attacking the Cubists with a series of caricatures laced with derogatory text.^[41] Art historian Jaime Brihuega writes of the Dalmau show: "No doubt that the exhibition produced a strong commotion in the public, who welcomed information technology with a lot of suspicion.^[42]

Salon d'Automne [edit]

The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created scandal regarding the use of government endemic buildings, such every bit the Grand Palais, to showroom such artwork. The indignation of the politician Jean Pierre Philippe Lampué made the front page of Le Periodical, 5 Oct 1912.^[43] The controversy spread to the Municipal Quango of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Députés well-nigh the utilize of public funds to provide the venue for such art.^[44] The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat.^[44] ^[45] ^[46]

Information technology was against this groundwork of public acrimony that Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote Du "Cubisme" (published by Eugène Figuière in 1912, translated to English language and Russian in 1913).^[47] Amid the works exhibited were Le Fauconnier's vast limerick Les Montagnards attaqués par des ours (Mountaineers Attacked by Bears) at present at Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Joseph Csaky's Deux Femme, Ii Women (a sculpture now lost), in addition to the highly abstruse paintings by Kupka, Amorpha (The National Gallery, Prague), and Picabia, La Source (The Jump) (Museum of Modernistic Art, New York).

Abstraction and the prepare-fabricated [edit]

The virtually farthermost forms of Cubism were not those practiced by Picasso and Braque, who resisted total abstraction. Other Cubists, by contrast, peculiarly František Kupka, and those considered Orphists by Apollinaire (Delaunay, Léger, Picabia and Duchamp), accepted abstraction by removing visible subject matter entirely. Kupka's two entries at the 1912 Salon d'Automne, Amorpha-Fugue à deux couleurs and Amorpha chromatique chaude, were highly abstract (or nonrepresentational) and metaphysical in orientation. Both Duchamp in 1912 and Picabia from 1912 to 1914 developed an expressive and allusive abstraction defended to complex emotional and sexual themes. Beginning in 1912 Delaunay painted a series of paintings entitled Simultaneous Windows, followed by a series entitled Formes Circulaires, in which he combined planar structures with bright prismatic hues; based on the optical characteristics of juxtaposed colors his departure from reality in the delineation of imagery was quasi-consummate. In 1913–14 Léger produced a series entitled Contrasts of Forms, giving a similar stress to color, line and form. His Cubism, despite its abstruse qualities, was associated with themes of mechanization and modern life. Apollinaire supported these early developments of abstract Cubism in Les Peintres cubistes (1913),^[24] writing of a new "pure" painting in which the subject was vacated. Simply in spite of his use of the term Orphism these works were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category.^[5]

Besides labeled an Orphist by Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp was responsible for another extreme development inspired past Cubism. The prepare-made arose from a joint consideration that the work itself is considered an object (just as a painting), and that it uses the material detritus of the world (as collage and papier collé in the Cubist construction and Assemblage). The next logical step, for Duchamp, was to nowadays an ordinary object every bit a self-sufficient work of fine art representing but itself. In 1913 he fastened a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and in 1914 selected a bottle-drying rack equally a sculpture in its own right.^[5]

Department d'Or [edit]

The Section d'Or, also known as Groupe de Puteaux, founded by some of the near conspicuous Cubists, was a collective of painters, sculptors and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism, active from 1911 through about 1914, coming to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the 1911 Salon des Indépendants. The Salon de la Section d'Or at the Galerie La Boétie in Paris, October 1912, was arguably the near of import pre-World War I Cubist exhibition; exposing Cubism to a broad audience. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact that many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective.^[48]

The group seems to have adopted the name Section d'Or to distinguish themselves from the narrower definition of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, and to show that Cubism, rather than being an isolated art-course, represented the continuation of a thousand tradition (indeed, the golden ratio had fascinated Western intellectuals of various interests for at least 2,400 years).^[49]

The idea of the Section d'Or originated in the course of conversations between Metzinger, Gleizes and Jacques Villon. The grouping'southward title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci's Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian and Native American art. Artists such equally Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an involvement in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African fine art and African tribal masks. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new catamenia in his work past 1907, marked past the influence of Greek, Iberian and African fine art. Picasso'south paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.^[13]

The art historian Douglas Cooper states that Paul Gauguin and Paul Cézanne "were particularly influential to the germination of Cubism and especially important to the paintings of Picasso during 1906 and 1907".^[fifty] Cooper goes on to say: "The Demoiselles is mostly referred to equally the first Cubist picture. This is an exaggeration, for although it was a major first step towards Cubism it is not yet Cubist. The disruptive, expressionist chemical element in it is even contrary to the spirit of Cubism, which looked at the world in a detached, realistic spirit. Nevertheless, the Demoiselles is the logical movie to accept as the starting betoken for Cubism, because it marks the nascence of a new pictorial idiom, considering in information technology Picasso violently overturned established conventions and because all that followed grew out of it."^[13]

The well-nigh serious objection to regarding the Demoiselles as the origin of Cubism, with its evident influence of primitive art, is that "such deductions are unhistorical", wrote the art historian Daniel Robbins. This familiar explanation "fails to give acceptable consideration to the complexities of a flourishing art that existed merely before and during the period when Picasso's new painting adult."^[51] Between 1905 and 1908, a conscious search for a new way caused rapid changes in fine art across France, Germany, Kingdom of the netherlands, Italy, and Russia. The Impressionists had used a double bespeak of view, and both Les Nabis and the Symbolists (who also admired Cézanne) flattened the film plane, reducing their subjects to elementary geometric forms. Neo-Impressionist structure and subject affair, about notably to be seen in the works of Georges Seurat (due east.thou., Parade de Cirque, Le Chahut and Le Cirque), was another important influence. There were also parallels in the development of literature and social idea.^[51]

In addition to Seurat, the roots of cubism are to be found in the 2 distinct tendencies of Cézanne'southward after work: showtime his breaking of the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and second his involvement in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones. Notwithstanding, the cubists explored this concept further than Cézanne. They represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture aeroplane, as if the objects had all their faces visible at the same fourth dimension. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the style objects could exist visualized in painting and art.

The historical study of Cubism began in the late 1920s, drawing at first from sources of limited information, namely the opinions of Guillaume Apollinaire. Information technology came to rely heavily on Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler'due south book Der Weg zum Kubismus (published in 1920), which centered on the developments of Picasso, Braque, Léger, and Gris. The terms "analytical" and "synthetic" which afterwards emerged take been widely accepted since the mid-1930s. Both terms are historical impositions that occurred after the facts they identify. Neither phase was designated as such at the time respective works were created. "If Kahnweiler considers Cubism as Picasso and Braque," wrote Daniel Robbins, "our only fault is in subjecting other Cubists' works to the rigors of that express definition."^[51]

The traditional interpretation of "Cubism", formulated post facto as a ways of understanding the works of Braque and Picasso, has affected our appreciation of other twentieth-century artists. Information technology is difficult to use to painters such equally Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, whose fundamental differences from traditional Cubism compelled Kahnweiler to question whether to call them Cubists at all. According to Daniel Robbins, "To suggest that merely because these artists adult differently or varied from the traditional design they deserved to exist relegated to a secondary or satellite office in Cubism is a profound error."^[51]

The history of the term "Cubism" usually stresses the fact that Matisse referred to "cubes" in connection with a painting by Braque in 1908, and that the term was published twice by the critic Louis Vauxcelles in a similar context. Still, the word "cube" was used in 1906 past another critic, Louis Chassevent, with reference non to Picasso or Braque but rather to Metzinger and Delaunay:

"M. Metzinger is a mosaicist like M. Signac just he brings more precision to the cutting of his cubes of color which appear to have been fabricated mechanically [...]".^[51] ^[52] ^[53]

The critical utilise of the give-and-take "cube" goes dorsum at least to May 1901 when Jean Béral, reviewing the work of Henri-Edmond Cross at the Indépendants in Fine art et Littérature, commented that he "uses a big and square pointillism, giving the impression of mosaic. I even wonders why the artist has not used cubes of solid matter diversely colored: they would make pretty revetments." (Robert Herbert, 1968, p. 221)^[53]

The term Cubism did not come into general usage until 1911, mainly with reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, and Léger.^[51] In 1911, the poet and critic Guillaume Apollinaire accepted the term on behalf of a group of artists invited to exhibit at the Brussels Indépendants. The post-obit twelvemonth, in training for the Salon de la Section d'Or, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote and published Du "Cubisme" ^[54] in an attempt to dispel the confusion raging around the word, and equally a major defence of Cubism (which had caused a public scandal following the 1911 Salon des Indépendants and the 1912 Salon d'Automne in Paris).^[55] Clarifying their aims as artists, this work was the showtime theoretical treatise on Cubism and it however remains the clearest and most intelligible. The result, non solely a collaboration between its two authors, reflected discussions by the circumvolve of artists who met in Puteaux and Courbevoie. It mirrored the attitudes of the "artists of Passy", which included Picabia and the Duchamp brothers, to whom sections of it were read prior to publication.^[5] ^[51] The concept developed in Du "Cubisme" of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously, i.e., the act of moving around an object to seize it from several successive angles fused into a single prototype (multiple viewpoints, mobile perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity), is a more often than not recognized device used by the Cubists.^[56]

The 1912 manifesto Du "Cubisme" past Metzinger and Gleizes was followed in 1913 past Les Peintres Cubistes, a collection of reflections and commentaries by Guillaume Apollinaire.^[24] Apollinaire had been closely involved with Picasso kickoff in 1905, and Braque starting time in 1907, only gave as much attention to artists such as Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Picabia, and Duchamp.^[5]

The fact that the 1912 exhibition had been curated to show the successive stages through which Cubism had transited, and that Du "Cubisme" had been published for the occasion, indicates the artists' intention of making their work comprehensible to a wide audience (art critics, art collectors, art dealers and the general public). Undoubtedly, due to the slap-up success of the exhibition, Cubism became avant-garde movement recognized every bit a genre or manner in fine art with a specific common philosophy or goal.^[48]

Crystal Cubism: 1914–1918 [edit]

A significant modification of Cubism between 1914 and 1916 was signaled by a shift towards a strong emphasis on large overlapping geometric planes and flat surface action. This grouping of styles of painting and sculpture, especially significant between 1917 and 1920, was practiced by several artists; particularly those under contract with the art dealer and collector Léonce Rosenberg. The tightening of the compositions, the clarity and sense of club reflected in these works, led to its existence referred to by the critic Maurice Raynal as 'crystal' Cubism. Considerations manifested by Cubists prior to the outset of World War I—such as the time, dynamism of modern life, the occult, and Henri Bergson'southward concept of duration—had now been vacated, replaced past a purely formal frame of reference.^[57]

Crystal Cubism, and its associative rappel à l'ordre, has been linked with an inclination—by those who served the war machine and by those who remained in the civilian sector—to escape the realities of the Neat State of war, both during and directly following the disharmonize. The purifying of Cubism from 1914 through the mid-1920s, with its cohesive unity and voluntary constraints, has been linked to a much broader ideological transformation towards conservatism in both French society and French civilisation.^[5]

Cubism after 1918 [edit]

The almost innovative period of Cubism was before 1914^{[ citation needed ]}. After World State of war I, with the support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg, Cubism returned every bit a central issue for artists, and continued equally such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris. Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Léger, Gleizes, and Metzinger, while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well afterwards 1925. Cubism reemerged during the 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson. In France, withal, Cubism experienced a pass up commencement in most 1925. Léonce Rosenberg exhibited not merely the artists stranded by Kahnweiler's exile but others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de l'Effort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made past Louis Vauxcelles to argue that Cubism was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indépendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section d'Or in the same year, demonstrated it was even so alive.^[5]

The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from nigh 1917–24 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, amongst the artists, by Gris, Léger and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicism—figurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist work—experienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural authority of a classical or Latin prototype of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism afterward 1918 tin be seen as role of a wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French order and culture. All the same, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other equally Braque, Léger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated motility became relatively unified and open up to definition. Its theoretical purity fabricated it a gauge against which such diverse tendencies every bit Realism or Naturalism, Dada, Surrealism and brainchild could exist compared.^[five]

Diego Rivera, Portrait de Messieurs Kawashima et Foujita, 1914

Influence in Asia [edit]

Japan and China were among the first countries in Asia to be influenced by Cubism. Contact first occurred via European texts translated and published in Japanese art journals in the 1910s. In the 1920s, Japanese and Chinese artists who studied in Paris, for example those enrolled at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, brought back with them both an agreement of modern art movements, including Cubism. Notable works exhibiting Cubist qualities were Tetsugorō Yorozu'due south Cocky Portrait with Crimson Eyes (1912) and Fang Ganmin'southward Tune in Fall (1934).^[59] ^[60]

Interpretation [edit]

Intentions and criticism [edit]

The Cubism of Picasso and Braque had more than a technical or formal significance, and the singled-out attitudes and intentions of the Salon Cubists produced unlike kinds of Cubism, rather than a derivative of their work. "It is by no means clear, in whatsoever instance," wrote Christopher Green, "to what extent these other Cubists depended on Picasso and Braque for their development of such techniques as faceting, 'passage' and multiple perspective; they could well have arrived at such practices with piffling knowledge of 'true' Cubism in its early stages, guided higher up all past their own understanding of Cézanne." The works exhibited by these Cubists at the 1911 and 1912 Salons extended beyond the conventional Cézanne-like subjects—the posed model, even so-life and landscape—favored past Picasso and Braque to include big-scale modern-life subjects. Aimed at a large public, these works stressed the use of multiple perspective and complex planar faceting for expressive upshot while preserving the eloquence of subjects endowed with literary and philosophical connotations.^[5]

In Du "Cubisme" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related the sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of 'elapsing' proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the nowadays and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and infinite and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of the fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions betwixt past, present and future. 1 of the major theoretical innovations fabricated by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity,^[v] cartoon to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, Charles Henry, Maurice Princet, and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions was comprehensively challenged. Linear perspective developed during the Renaissance was vacated. The subject affair was no longer considered from a specific signal of view at a moment in time, simply built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.east., every bit if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in multiple dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other.^[56]

This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion) is pushed to a loftier caste of complexity in Metzinger's Nu à la cheminée, exhibited at the 1910 Salon d'Automne; Gleizes' awe-inspiring Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing), exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or; Le Fauconnier's Affluence shown at the Indépendants of 1911; and Delaunay's Urban center of Paris, exhibited at the Indépendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of the largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Léger'south The Wedding, besides shown at the Salon des Indépendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity past presenting different motifs equally occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective forcefulness. The conjunction of such subject matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini and Carlo Carrà; themselves made in response to early Cubism.^[nine]

Cubism and modernistic European art was introduced into the United states at the now legendary 1913 Arsenal Evidence in New York City, which then traveled to Chicago and Boston. In the Arsenal evidence Pablo Picasso exhibited La Femme au pot de moutarde (1910), the sculpture Head of a Woman (Fernande) (1909–10), Les Arbres (1907) amidst other cubist works. Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and big drypoints, while his brother Marcel Duchamp shocked the American public with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912). Francis Picabia exhibited his abstractions La Danse à la source and La Procession, Seville (both of 1912). Albert Gleizes exhibited La Femme aux phlox (1910) and L'Homme au balcon (1912), 2 highly stylized and faceted cubist works. Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye and Alexander Archipenko also contributed examples of their cubist works.

Cubist sculpture [edit]

Frontal view of the same bronze cast, 40.5 × 23 × 26 cm

These photos were published in Umělecký Mĕsíčník, 1913^[62]

Just every bit in painting, Cubist sculpture is rooted in Paul Cézanne's reduction of painted objects into component planes and geometric solids (cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones). And but equally in painting, information technology became a pervasive influence and contributed fundamentally to Constructivism and Futurism.

Cubist sculpture adult in parallel to Cubist painting. During the fall of 1909 Picasso sculpted Caput of a Woman (Fernande) with positive features depicted past negative space and vice versa. Co-ordinate to Douglas Cooper: "The first true Cubist sculpture was Picasso'south impressive Woman's Head, modeled in 1909–10, a analogue in three dimensions to many like analytical and faceted heads in his paintings at the time."^[12] These positive/negative reversals were ambitiously exploited past Alexander Archipenko in 1912–xiii, for instance in Woman Walking.^[5] Joseph Csaky, after Archipenko, was the get-go sculptor in Paris to join the Cubists, with whom he exhibited from 1911 onwards. They were followed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and then in 1914 by Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine.^[63] ^[64]

Indeed, Cubist construction was equally influential as any pictorial Cubist innovation. It was the stimulus behind the proto-Constructivist work of both Naum Gabo and Vladimir Tatlin and thus the starting-signal for the unabridged constructive tendency in 20th-century modernist sculpture.^[5]

Architecture [edit]

Le Corbusier, Assembly building, Chandigarh, Republic of india

Cubism formed an important link betwixt early-20th-century fine art and architecture.^[65] The historical, theoretical, and socio-political relationships betwixt avant-garde practices in painting, sculpture and compages had early ramifications in France, Germany, holland and Czechoslovakia. Though there are many points of intersection betwixt Cubism and architecture, merely a few direct links betwixt them can be fatigued. Most often the connections are made by reference to shared formal characteristics: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.^[65]

Architectural involvement in Cubism centered on the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form, using simple geometric shapes, juxtaposed without the illusions of classical perspective. Various elements could be superimposed, made transparent or penetrate one some other, while retaining their spatial relationships. Cubism had become an influential cistron in the development of modernistic architecture from 1912 (La Maison Cubiste, past Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare) onwards, developing in parallel with architects such every bit Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius, with the simplification of building pattern, the employ of materials advisable to industrial production, and the increased use of glass.^[66]

Cubism was relevant to an architecture seeking a mode that needed not refer to the by. Thus, what had go a revolution in both painting and sculpture was applied every bit part of "a profound reorientation towards a changed world".^[66] ^[67] The Cubo-Futurist ideas of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti influenced attitudes in avant-garde architecture. The influential De Stijl movement embraced the aesthetic principles of Neo-plasticism developed by Piet Mondrian under the influence of Cubism in Paris. De Stijl was also linked past Gino Severini to Cubist theory through the writings of Albert Gleizes. However, the linking of basic geometric forms with inherent beauty and ease of industrial awarding—which had been prefigured by Marcel Duchamp from 1914—was left to the founders of Purism, Amédée Ozenfant and Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (amend known as Le Corbusier,) who exhibited paintings together in Paris and published Après le cubisme in 1918.^[66] Le Corbusier'south appetite had been to interpret the properties of his ain style of Cubism to architecture. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier concentrated his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and his cousin Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. His theoretical studies soon avant-garde into many different architectural projects.^[68]

La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House) [edit]

Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, Study for La Maison Cubiste, Projet d'Hotel (Cubist House). Prototype published in Les Peintres Cubistes, by Guillaume Apollinaire, 17 March 1913

Le Salon Conservative, designed by André Mare for La Maison Cubiste, in the decorative arts section of the Salon d'Automne, 1912, Paris. Metzinger'southward Femme à l'Éventail on the left wall

At the 1912 Salon d'Automne an architectural installation was exhibited that apace became known as Maison Cubiste (Cubist House), with compages past Raymond Duchamp-Villon and interior decoration by André Mare forth with a grouping of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in Du "Cubisme", written during the assemblage of the "Maison Cubiste", wrote nigh the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the "antonym of the movie". "The true picture" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, "bears its raison d'être inside itself. It tin be moved from a church to a drawing-room, from a museum to a written report. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it demand non immediately satisfy the heed: on the contrary, it should lead information technology, little by lilliputian, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative calorie-free resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in full general, with the universe: it is an organism...".^[69]

La Maison Cubiste was a fully furnished model house, with a facade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, and two rooms: a living room—the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Marcel Duchamp, Metzinger (Woman with a Fan), Gleizes, Laurencin and Léger were hung, and a bedchamber. Information technology was an example of L'art décoratif, a home within which Cubist art could exist displayed in the comfort and manner of mod, bourgeois life. Spectators at the Salon d'Automne passed through the plaster facade, designed by Duchamp-Villon, to the 2 furnished rooms.^[seventy] This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston,^[71] listed in the catalogue of the New York exhibit as Raymond Duchamp-Villon, number 609, and entitled "Facade architectural, plaster" (Façade architecturale).^[72] ^[73]

Jacques Doucet's hôtel particulier, 33 rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine

The furnishings, wallpaper, upholstery and carpets of the interior were designed by André Mare, and were early examples of the influence of cubism on what would become Art Deco. They were composed of very brightly colored roses and other floral patterns in stylized geometric forms.

Mare called the living room in which Cubist paintings were hung the Salon Conservative. Léger described this name as 'perfect'. In a letter to Mare prior to the exhibition Léger wrote: "Your idea is absolutely splendid for united states of america, really fantabulous. People will meet Cubism in its domestic setting, which is very important.^[2]

"Mare's ensembles were accustomed as frames for Cubist works because they allowed paintings and sculptures their independence", Christopher Greenish wrote, "creating a play of contrasts, hence the involvement not only of Gleizes and Metzinger themselves, but of Marie Laurencin, the Duchamp brothers (Raymond Duchamp-Villon designed the facade) and Mare'south old friends Léger and Roger La Fresnaye".^[74]

In 1927, Cubists Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Louis Marcoussis, Henri Laurens, the sculptor Gustave Miklos, and others collaborated in the decoration of a Studio Business firm, rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine, designed by the architect Paul Ruaud and owned by the French fashion designer Jacques Doucet, also a collector of Mail service-Impressionist and Cubist paintings (including Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which he bought directly from Picasso'due south studio). Laurens designed the fountain, Csaky designed Doucet'south staircase,^[75] Lipchitz made the fireplace mantel, and Marcoussis made a Cubist carpet.^[76] ^[77] ^[78]

Czech Cubist architecture [edit]

The original Cubist compages is very rare. Cubism was applied to architecture only in Bohemia (today Czech Republic) and especially in its capital, Prague.^[79] ^[lxxx] Czech architects were the commencement and only ones to ever design original Cubist buildings.^[81] Cubist architecture flourished for the most part betwixt 1910 and 1914, merely the Cubist or Cubism-influenced buildings were also built after Earth War I. After the war, the architectural mode called Rondo-Cubism was adult in Prague fusing the Cubist architecture with round shapes.^[82]

In their theoretical rules, the Cubist architects expressed the requirement of dynamism, which would surmount the matter and calm contained in it, through a creative idea, so that the consequence would evoke feelings of dynamism and expressive plasticity in the viewer. This should be accomplished by shapes derived from pyramids, cubes and prisms, by arrangements and compositions of oblique surfaces, mainly triangular, sculpted facades in protruding crystal-like units, reminiscent of the then-called diamond cut, or even cavernous that are reminiscent of the belatedly Gothic architecture. In this way, the unabridged surfaces of the facades including even the gables and dormers are sculpted. The grilles as well as other architectural ornaments attain a three-dimensional form. Thus, new forms of windows and doors were as well created, e. k. hexagonal windows.^[82] Czech Cubist architects also designed Cubist article of furniture.

The leading Cubist architects were Pavel Janák, Josef Gočár, Vlastislav Hofman, Emil Králíček and Josef Chochol.^[82] They worked mostly in Prague simply also in other Bohemian towns. The best-known Cubist building is the House of the Black Madonna in the Old Town of Prague built in 1912 by Josef Gočár with the only Cubist café in the globe, Grand Café Orient.^[79] Vlastislav Hofman built the archway pavilions of Ďáblice Cemetery in 1912–1914, Josef Chochol designed several residential houses under Vyšehrad. A Cubist streetlamp has as well been preserved near the Wenceslas Foursquare, designed by Emil Králíček in 1912, who also built the Diamond Firm in the New Town of Prague around 1913.

Cubism in other fields [edit]

The influence of cubism extended to other artistic fields, outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein use repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole capacity. Virtually of Stein'south important works utilise this technique, including the novel The Making of Americans (1906–08). Not only were they the offset important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism besides. In turn, Picasso was an of import influence on Stein's writing. In the field of American fiction, William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay Dying can exist read as an interaction with the cubist style. The novel features narratives of the diverse experiences of 15 characters which, when taken together, produce a single cohesive body.

The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity fabricated self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free clan of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada."^[83] Yet, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, Éluard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet."^[84] Though not as well remembered equally the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett accept recently produced new translations of Reverdy's piece of work. Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is as well said to demonstrate how cubism'south multiple perspectives tin can be translated into poesy.^[85]

John Berger said: "It is virtually incommunicable to exaggerate the importance of Cubism. It was a revolution in the visual arts as great as that which took place in the early Renaissance. Its effects on later fine art, on moving-picture show, and on architecture are already then numerous that we inappreciably notice them."^[86]

Gallery [edit]

Pablo Picasso, 1913–fourteen, Femme assise dans un fauteuil (Eva), Woman in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.nine 10 99.four cm, Leonard A. Lauder Cubist Collection
Pablo Picasso, 1918, Arlequin au violon (Harlequin with Violin), oil on sheet, 142 x 100.iii cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio
Gino Severini, 1919, Bohémien Jouant de L'Accordéon (The Accordion Role player), Museo del Novecento, Milan

Printing articles and reviews [edit]

(eye) Jean Metzinger, c.1913, Le Fumeur (Man with Pipe), Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; (left) Alexander Archipenko, 1914, Danseuse du Médrano (Médrano II), (correct) Archipenko, 1913, Pierrot-carrousel, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. Published in Le Petit Comtois, 13 March 1914
Paintings by Fernand Léger, 1912, La Femme en Bleu, Woman in Blue, Kunstmuseum Basel; Jean Metzinger, 1912, Dancer in a café, Albright-Knox Fine art Gallery; and sculpture by Alexander Archipenko, 1912, La Vie Familiale, Family Life (destroyed). Published in Les Annales politiques et littéraires, north. 1529, 13 Oct 1912
Paintings by Gino Severini, 1911, La Danse du Pan-Pan, and Severini, 1913, Fifty'autobus. Published in "Les Annales politiques et littéraires", Le Paradoxe Cubiste, fourteen March 1920
Paintings by Gino Severini, 1911, Souvenirs de Voyage; Albert Gleizes, 1912, Human on a Balustrade, 50'Homme au balcon; Severini, 1912–xiii, Portrait de Mlle Jeanne Paul-Fort; Luigi Russolo, 1911–12, La Révolte. Published in "Les Annales politiques et littéraires", Le Paradoxe Cubiste (continued), n. 1916, 14 March 1920
Jean Metzinger, c.1911, Nature morte, Compotier et cruche décorée de cerfs; Juan Gris, 1911, Report for Human in a Café; Marie Laurencin, c.1911, Testa ab plechs; August Agero, sculpture, Bust; Juan Gris, 1912, Guitar and Glasses, or Banjo and Glasses. Published in Veu de Catalunya, 25 April 1912
Umberto Boccioni, 1911, La rue entre dans la maison; Luigi Russolo, 1911, Souvenir d'une nuit. Published in Les Annales politiques et littéraires, i December 1912
Francis Picabia, paintings published in the New York Tribune, 9 March 1913. Picabia held his first one-human being show in New York, Exhibition of New York studies by Francis Picabia, at 291 art gallery (formerly Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession), March 17 - April v, 1913

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^ Rexroth, Kenneth. "The Cubist Poetry of Pierre Reverdy (Rexroth)". Bopsecrets.org. Archived from the original on 2011-05-nineteen. Retrieved 2011-06-eleven .
^ Reverdy, Pierre. "Championship Page > Pierre Reverdy: Selected Poems". Bloodaxe Books. Archived from the original on 2011-05-27. Retrieved 2011-06-11 .
^ "Untitled Certificate". Archived from the original on 2007-08-xiii. Retrieved 2008-04-07 .
^ Berger, John. (1965). The Success and Failure of Picasso. Penguin Books, Ltd. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-679-73725-4.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cubism.

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Look up cubism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Cubism, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cubism, Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées (RMN)
Czech Cubist Architecture
Cubism, Guggenheim Collection Online
Index of Celebrated Collectors and Dealers of Cubism, Leonard A. Lauder Research Middle for Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Elizabeth Carlson, Cubist Fashion: Mainstreaming Modernism later on the Arsenal, Winterthur Portfolio, Vol. 48, No. ane (Bound 2014), pp. 1–28. doi:ten.1086/675687